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<article lang="en"><title>Cardinal directions and environmental concepts of landscape in Kwanyama (Owambo)</title><articleinfo><authorgroup><author><firstname>Dirk</firstname><surname>Otten</surname><affiliation><orgname>Uni Köln</orgname></affiliation></author></authorgroup><biblioid class="uri">urn:nbn:de:0009-10-2491</biblioid><keywordset><keyword>Kwanyama</keyword><keyword>landscape</keyword><keyword>Landschaft</keyword><keyword>environment</keyword><keyword>Namibia</keyword><keyword>Owambo</keyword></keywordset><subjectset scheme="lcc"><subject>Namibia</subject></subjectset></articleinfo><section><title>1. Introduction</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><1></para><para>This contribution examines some conceptual domains of environment among the Kwanyama speakers of northern Namibia, focussing on the linguistic expression as well as on their semantic facets and richness. In many cases, it will become clear that the designation of landscape and its scenic characteristics of landscape does not necessarily require specific terms. Instead, it often makes use of phraseological and descriptive devices, which must be regarded as strongly context dependent. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><2></para><para>The major part of this paper deals with different types of landscape, their conceptualisation as well as their linguistic expression. This includes mainly the domains of forest, savannah, seasonal grassland and their salient features and elements. Finally, the findings will be contrasted with results from my survey on place names conducted in the Owambo region as part of a <ulink url="http://www.uni-koeln.de/inter-fak/sfb389/"><phrase role="Hyperlink">Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 389</phrase></ulink> (1.12.2005) project.<phrase role="endnote reference"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> I thank Wilhelm J.G. Möhlig for valuable comments and discussions on an earlier version of this paper. For helpful suggestions and comments I am very much indebted to Helma Pasch, Erhard Voeltz and Bernd Heine.</para></footnote></phrase></para></section><section><title>2. The position of Kwanyama within the Owambo dialect cluster</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><3></para><para>Kwanyama, a Bantu language of zone R<phrase role="endnote reference"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> In Guthrie's classification of 1971 (vol,II, p.61), Kwanyama is referred to as R.21. </para></footnote></phrase>, is spoken in central northern Namibia as well as southern Angola. Besides Ndonga, Kwanyama is one of the major languages of the Owambo region. Like Ndonga, it gained its status through early missionary activities starting in the late 19th century.</para><para>The data relevant to this work were elicited from the northern Namibian variety of Kwanyama. </para><para role="Bild"><inlinemediaobject><imageobject><imagedata width="160.2mm" depth="63.5mm" fileref="dippArticle-1.jpg" format="JPG" srccredit="embed" /></imageobject></inlinemediaobject></para><para><phrase role="Text11">Map: Distribution of Kwanyama in Northern Namibia</phrase></para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><4></para><para>The Owambo languages form a dialectal continuum delimiting itself from neighbouring languages – i.e. Herero in the West and the Kavango languages in the East. For linguistic grounds, the Owambo dialect cluster may be divided into two distinct areas: South Owambo and North Owambo. </para><para>While Ndonga is closely connected to southern Owambo, Kwanyama is strongly linked to northern Owambo. Linguistic evidence for this division, which is also reflected in the environmental terminology, is mainly based on phonological and lexical features. </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="5"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="24.8pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="78.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="115.2pt" colnum="3" /><colspec colname="col4" colwidth="115.2pt" colnum="4" /><colspec colname="col5" colwidth="78.5pt" colnum="5" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">1.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">Kwanyama</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">Ndonga</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col5" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">phonological</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">omufima</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">omuthima</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col5" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'water-hole'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">lexical</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">omuheke</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col5" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'savannah'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para role="Absatznummerierung"><5></para><para>In addition, there exist also grammatical differences among the Owambo dialects. This involves, e.g., the noun classes, the pronouns and the demonstratives. However, the existence of nominal pre-prefixes as found in the neighbouring Herero language, but absent in the Kavango languages is a common feature of all Owambo dialects (see also ch. 7).</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><6></para><para>Many concepts of environment are not expressed by one single lexical item. For the designation of such a structure I will use the term phraseolexeme according to Gréciano (1999) as quoted below. In principle, phrasemes are regarded as 'pre-fabricated' parts of language. Their appearance and expression in the field of common language, is designated by the term phraseolexeme.</para><blockquote><para role="Zitat">Die immer klaffenderen Lücken von Nominationen [.....] erklären den engen Zusammenhang zwischen Sprachfertigteilen und Neologie; ihr Aufkommen besonders in Fachbereichen führt zur Terminologie; ihre Identifikationskraft schlägt die Brücke zur Onomastik; ihre linguistische Eruierung geschieht im Rahmen der Phraseologie. Phraseme sind Sprachfertigteile, Phraseolexeme in der Gemeinsprache, Phraseoterme in der Fachsprache.</para><para role="Zitat">Sprachfertigteile, Schematismen, Formeln gelten als phraseologisch, wenn sie mehrgliedrig, festgeprägt und/oder figuriert sind.</para></blockquote><para role="Absatznummerierung"><7></para><para>The system of noun class formatives in Kwanyama constitutes the basis for two underlying strategies in establishing phraseolexemes to express and refine environmental concepts. In the examples given below, the class specific possessive concords as well as infinitive marking are applied<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> Noun Class Prefixes of Kwanyama and Ndonga and their most important semantic functions:</para><informaltable frame="all"><tgroup cols="4"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="39.9pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="74.4pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="74.4pt" colnum="3" /><colspec colname="col4" colwidth="272.2pt" colnum="4" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Hervorheben">Class</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Hervorheben">Kwanyama</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Hervorheben">Ndonga</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Hervorheben">Semantics</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">1</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omu- / omw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omu- / omw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">humans, other animates</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">1a</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">Ø</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">Ø</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">kinship terms, proper names</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">2</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ova-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">aa-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote" /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">2a</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oo-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oo-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote" /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">3</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omu- / omw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omu- / omw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">trees, plants, non-paired body parts, other inanimates</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">4</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omi- / omy-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">omi-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote" /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">5</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">e-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">e-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">fruits, paired body parts, natural phenomena</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">6</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oma-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oma-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">liquids, masses</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">7</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oshi-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oshi-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">things, instruments, manner </phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">8</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oi- / oy-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ii-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote" /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">9</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">o(N)-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">o(N)-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">animals, inanimates</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">10</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ee(N)-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oo(N)-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote" /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">11</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">olu- / olw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">olu- / olw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">long thin objects, abstract nouns</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">13</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oka-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oka-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">diminuitives</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">14</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ou- / ow-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">uu-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">abstract nouns, mass nouns</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">15</para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oku- / okw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">oku- / okw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Text11">infinitive</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">16</para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">pu- / pw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">pu-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">near</para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">17</para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ku- / kw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">ku-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">remote</para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">18</para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">mu- / mw-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="Beispiel">mu-</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="1" colsep="1"><para role="Endnote">inside</para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable></footnote></phrase>. The instrumental readings result from the interplay between the semantics of nouns and the nomino-verbal constituents. The latter are either causative or neuter-passive infixes to the verb.</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="153.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="210.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">2.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Emanya lokutungifa</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The stone for building' (i.e. 'brick')</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Emanya</phrase> <phrase role="Beispiel">lokupika</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The stone for sharpening' (i.e. 'grindstone')</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para role="Absatznummerierung"><8></para><para>Another fundamental possibility of phraseolexeme formation is the possessum–possessor relation involving two nouns and the corresponding possessive concords:</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="153.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="204.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">3.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Emanya lomundilo</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The stone of the fire' (i.e. 'flintstone')</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>As compared to the examples in 2., a higher degree of lexicalisation must be assumed for that in 3. The phrasemes cited in 2. represent an area of Kwanyama morphology that neither can be labelled occasional nor usual. Notwithstanding, these phrasemes taking into account their overall function are considered as parts of the nominal lexicon in Kwanyama.</para></section><section><title>3. Cardinal directions </title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><9></para><para>Cardinal directions and concepts of landscape are immediately linked by their anthropocentric character. Both represent culture specific frames of cognition and the expression of spatial orientation<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> For a more extensive approach towards the transfer of landmarks into the expression of cardinal directions cf. Heine 1997:49ff.</para></footnote></phrase> among the Kwanyama. In his comparative study on cardinal directions in Ndonga, Kwanyama, Herero and Nama, Fourie (1992:144-153) concludes that the three first mentioned languages form a linguistic and cultural unit, strongly opposed to the Nama (Khoisan). Within this context, Fourie distinguishes three conceptual types of expressing cardinal directions in Kwanyama: (1) ethnonymic reference to neighbouring groups, (2) reference to the sun, and (3) reference by using gender dichotomies, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">olundume</phrase> 'male' for North and <phrase role="Beispiel">olukadi</phrase> 'female' for South. </para><para>While the linguistic encoding by means of (1) and (2) is frequently ascertained in our data, at least in Kwanyama, we were not able to confirm the dichotomising expressions. We only found an alternative lexeme with the meaning 'North' (<phrase role="Beispiel">oufiku</phrase> 'night'). However, for the cardinal direction 'South', a corresponding lexeme, i.e. 'day' (<phrase role="Beispiel">omutenya</phrase>) was not attested. </para><para>The following expressions represent the cardinal directions in Kwanyama:</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="4"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="126.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="123.0pt" colnum="3" /><colspec colname="col4" colwidth="126.0pt" colnum="4" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">4.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Hervorheben">Eembinga dounyuni</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Hervorheben">'Cardinal directions'</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Hervorheben">Verbal translations</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">oushilo</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'East'</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'rising' (of the sun)</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">outokelo</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'West'</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'setting' (of the sun)</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">kevale ~ oufiku</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'to the North'</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'to Evale' ~ 'night'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">kondonga</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'to the South'</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col4" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'to Ndonga'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para role="Absatznummerierung"><10></para><para>The lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">eembinga</phrase> 'directions' as one constituent of the whole expression demands the plural prefix <phrase role="Beispiel">ee</phrase>- of class 10, whereas <phrase role="Beispiel">ounyuni</phrase> 'world' is treated as an abstract noun, which determines the abstractness of the whole phraseme. The plural marking by the prefix <phrase role="Beispiel">ee</phrase>– is due to the dual character of possible directions. The morphological assignment to the so-called animal class can best be explained by taking into account the basic meaning of –<phrase role="Beispiel">mbinga</phrase>. This lexeme originally denotes 'horns of cattle', recognized as pointing into two opposite directions. The point of reference is the base of the horns on the cattles skull.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> Kwanyama has a large variety of terms taking into account the shape and bending of horns. <phrase role="Beispiel">Ombulu</phrase>, for example, refers to the part between the ear and the emergence of the horn.</para></footnote></phrase> Therefore, the occurrence of the singular of the lexeme, i.e. <phrase role="Beispiel">ombinga</phrase> is rare in Kwanyama. But by marking the term either for singular or plural, the language distinguishes whether a direction is specific (5.a) or vague (5.b): </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="327.0pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">5.a)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Omufitu owayo kifa kombinga eyi.</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The forest is towards this direction.'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">5.b)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Ngenge owa hala okushakena naye inda meembinga edi!</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'If you would like to meet her/him go towards those directions!'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Both examples show the necessity of applying a locative class marker (16,17,18).<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> These classes are regarded as the most productive noun classes. Only a few examples exist, where the basic meaning is no longer traceable in a synchronical perspective (e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">koshi, poshi</phrase> 'below', 'beneath').</para></footnote></phrase> Furthermore, the selection of the respective singular/plural prefix emphasises the degree of propositional particularity in the statement.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><11></para><para>The terms given above for 'North' <phrase role="Beispiel">kevale</phrase> – verbally 'to Evale, towards Vale country' – and 'South' <phrase role="Beispiel">kondonga</phrase> – literally 'to Ndonga, towards Ndonga country' – show ethnonymic reference. For the purpose of disambiguation, they are usually quoted with the locative prefix of class 17. </para><para>The encoding of the concepts of 'East' <phrase role="Beispiel">oushilo </phrase>and 'West' <phrase role="Beispiel">outokelo </phrase>is more complex. From an etymological perspective, these terms are derived from the verb stems <phrase role="Beispiel">–sha</phrase> 'rise of the sun' and –<phrase role="Beispiel">toka</phrase> 'set of the sun' combined with the applicative suffixes <phrase role="Beispiel">–il(a)</phrase> and <phrase role="Beispiel">–el(a)</phrase>, respectively. Thus, both lexemes refer to the sun, more precisely to the sunrise and the sunset.</para></section><section><title>4. Forest areas and seasonal grasslands</title><section><title>4.1. Forest areas</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><12></para><para>The data presented here are altogether a reflection of landscape perception among the Kwanyama. Due to this, not the specific terminology – like names for trees, etc. – is highlighted here but the quality and semantics of expressions, i.e. the perception of vague borders. In preparation for the collection of data on landscape terminology, we looked through the relevant dictionaries of Kwanyama. We discussed the cases where problems of semantic demarcation and/or contradictory results arose with mother-tongue speakers.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> Our main partner in these conversations was L. Shinime.</para></footnote></phrase> </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><13></para><para>The lexical demarcation of landscape (see ch. 5.2.) is frequently perceived as a continuum. In order to specify the semantic spectrum of a lexeme and its features, the lexical roots under consideration where tested with diverging noun class prefixes. This approach renders a first access to the semantics of environmental terminology as will be demonstrated by the basic concept of 'forest'. Only in that area a cattle camp (<phrase role="Beispiel">ohambo</phrase>) can be found, while it will never be found in the adjacent landscape called <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> 'seasonal grassland area' (cf. 4.2.). </para><para>The term <phrase role="Beispiel">ofuka</phrase> refers to dense forest, where neither houses nor settlements exist. In contrast to <phrase role="Beispiel">ofuka</phrase>, the term <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> designates the savannah area that shows dense vegetation. <phrase role="Beispiel">Omufitu</phrase> is the grazing area for livestock, suitable for the establishment of settlements. The aspects of human exploitability is prominent for the <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase>.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> In Ndonga, this area is named <phrase role="Beispiel">omuheke</phrase>.</para></footnote></phrase> <phrase role="Beispiel">Omufitu,</phrase> the savannah, serves as the principal area of subsistence for the Kwanyama. The economic functions of these landscapes are indicated by the designations <phrase role="Beispiel">ovafita</phrase> 'herdsmen of goats' and the <phrase role="Beispiel">ovanahambo</phrase> 'herdsmen of cattle'. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><14></para><para>In the singular <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> denotes a definite area showing savannah vegetation, whereas in the plural <phrase role="Beispiel">omifitu</phrase> refers rather to regional phenomenon. For instance, standing at the the location of <phrase role="Beispiel">Oshakati</phrase>, the characteristics of landscape according to the regional qualities of the Eastern Owambo area can be expressed by means of <phrase role="Beispiel">omifitu </phrase>in a more abstract sense.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><15></para><para>Another important feature of <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> is that, in the cognition of a native speaker, vegetation is increasing gradually with distance from his/her actual standpoint. The spatial expansion lies in the horizontal perspective. However, the height of the vegetation does not increase according to distance, i.e. the idea of vertical size remains constant. Furthermore, <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> has necessarily a minimal expansion; a small<phrase role="Beispiel"> omufitu</phrase> is called <phrase role="Beispiel">okaluxwa</phrase>. In the <phrase role="Beispiel">okaluxwa-</phrase>area (i.e. <phrase role="Beispiel">epumbu</phrase>), only bush vegetation is found, but no trees. It is noteworthy that the characteristics of this lexeme focus on the vertical dimension of the envrionmental phenomenon. The horizontal dimension is not decisive in this case.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><16></para><para>A general strategy for differentiating shapes of landscape is the application of the diminutive prefix <phrase role="Beispiel">oka-</phrase>. Conceptually <phrase role="Beispiel">okamufitu</phrase> ranks between <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> and <phrase role="Beispiel">okaluxwa</phrase> as described above. While, to a certain extent, <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> shows some natural covering of trees, there is usually none in the <phrase role="Beispiel">okaluxwa, </phrase>and <phrase role="Beispiel">okamufitu</phrase> possesses a mixed vegetation of shrubs and trees. Evidently, the flat vegetation seems to be an important feature of this conceptually intermediate expression. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><17></para><para>The application of the noun prefix <phrase role="Beispiel">e–</phrase> (class 5) to the stem -<phrase role="Beispiel">fitu</phrase> leads to a derived interpretation: <phrase role="Beispiel">efitu</phrase> designates an extremely large <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> that is associated, inter alias, with dangers, like wild animals or evil spirits.</para></section><section><title>4.2. Water reservoirs and seasonal grassland</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><18></para><para>A prominent type of landscape in the Owambo area is the <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana </phrase>(pl. <phrase role="Beispiel">oyana</phrase>). The <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> is primarily associated with the plains, the open country called <phrase role="Beispiel">oshilongo</phrase>. Originally, a contrastive name for the forest area, <phrase role="Beispiel">oshilongo</phrase> is more and more referring to the country in general. The <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana </phrase>denotes shallow watercourses, which are seasonally full of tall grass and temporally filled by flood-waters (<phrase role="Beispiel">efundja</phrase>). The dimension of the <phrase role="Beispiel">efundja</phrase> depends mainly on the rainfall in Angola. </para><para>The potentials of exploitation are many fold: the system of the <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> provides water for the people, animals, and agricultural activities as well as fishing activities. Besides the <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> other forms of water reservoirs and depressions are important landmarks in the Owambo area of Northern Namibia.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><19></para><para>Any depression and hollow where (rain-)water can accumulate, independent of its extension, is called <phrase role="Beispiel">ondobe</phrase>. Semantically it competes with <phrase role="Beispiel">ondama</phrase>. Both lexemes are synonymous in their use. The latter is a borrowing from a European language. Whether its source is German or Afrikaans is not certainly attested.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><20></para><para>Another important landmark in Owambo is the <phrase role="Beispiel">ekango</phrase>. This term can best be transcribed as a 'depression with a high degree of salinity', i.e. 'salt-pan'. The <phrase role="Beispiel">ekango</phrase> like the <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> is flooded regularly in the rainy season and is a natural and temporary water reservoir. For the description of the surface of <phrase role="Beispiel">ekango</phrase> when it is flooded, the term <phrase role="Beispiel">ehenene</phrase> (pl. <phrase role="Beispiel">omahenene</phrase>) is used. However, this idea is not exclusively associated with the surface of water, since it also applies to any vast levelled area. Furthermore, we find it as a place name in the central Owambo area. In the flat shallow water of the <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase>, grass species like <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjado</phrase> 'sweet sedge' or <phrase role="Beispiel">omukashulwa</phrase> 'water grass' grow. Although, these plants form part of the livestock diet and especially the latter is used for roof constructions, the <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> area is the more suitable and appreciated pasture for livestock. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><21></para><para>A small lake that is usually artificially created is called <phrase role="Beispiel">etale. </phrase>It can even be located in a salt-pan <phrase role="Beispiel">ekango</phrase>.</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="430.1pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">6.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Etale oli li mekango lakatana. </phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The small lake is in the salt-pan of Okatana.'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Two more concepts of water reservoirs are lexically distinguished. Both denote artificially created waterholes that are used by people for watering the livestock. A waterhole located in the <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase> is called <phrase role="Beispiel">omufima</phrase>. With reference to a small <phrase role="Beispiel">omufima</phrase> the diminuitiv <phrase role="Beispiel">okafima</phrase> is applied. A well, located in the grassland or salt-pan (<phrase role="Beispiel">ekango</phrase>, dim. <phrase role="Beispiel">okakango</phrase>) is named <phrase role="Beispiel">ondungu</phrase>. Due to the sandy quality of the ground in the <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase>, these wells (<phrase role="Beispiel">ondungu</phrase>) are mostly dug outside this area. The steps, leading into a well or a waterhole are in both cases encoded as <phrase role="Beispiel">eendodo</phrase> (pl.).</para></section></section><section><title>5. General Elements of Landscape</title><section><title>5.1. Paths and streets</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><22></para><para>A path is called <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase>. The concept of <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase> neither possesses the quality of being wide nor to run straight. Curves and bends are basic features of <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase>. The term <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase> therefore stands in opposition to passable ways or streets like the modern coinages <phrase role="Beispiel">oshitauwa</phrase> 'motorway' or <phrase role="Beispiel">opate </phrase>'road'. The lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">engondi</phrase> denotes unexpected bends and curves in this context.</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="315.0pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">7.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Oshitauwa eshi shayuka, kEengela oshina engondi. </phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The street leading to Eengela has curves.'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para role="Absatznummerierung"><23></para><para>Another item for 'bend' is <phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo</phrase> (pl. <phrase role="Beispiel">omangolyo</phrase>). In combination with prefix of class 5, the lexeme represents an unmarked denotation. <phrase role="Beispiel">Omangolyo</phrase> is as basic to the idea of <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase> as <phrase role="Beispiel">engondi</phrase> is. In combination with a class 8 prefix: <phrase role="Beispiel">oingolyo</phrase>, the term is used in contexts where somebody is weary of walking a zigzag path. While <phrase role="Beispiel">oshitauwa</phrase> can be specified by means of <phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo</phrase> and, as seen above, with <phrase role="Beispiel">engondi</phrase>, the co-occurrence of <phrase role="Beispiel">ondjila</phrase> with <phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo </phrase>as well as <phrase role="Beispiel">engondi</phrase> is excluded, due to redundancy:</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="141.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="120.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">8.a)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo loshitauwa</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'bending of the street'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">8.b)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo loshitai</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'bending of branch'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">8.c)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo loshiti</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'bending of a stick'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Examples 8.b) and 8.c) show the primary reading of <phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo</phrase>. Branches and sticks normally possess bent characteristics to which <phrase role="Beispiel">engolyo</phrase> refers.</para></section><section><title>5.2. Borders and demarcations</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><24></para><para>With regard to crossing the border from one environmental domain entering into another environmental area, the question of borderline terminology arises. <phrase role="Beispiel">Omungulo</phrase> marks the edge of a concrete object, e.g. the upper edge of a 'basket' (<phrase role="Beispiel">oshimbale</phrase>) or the bordering of a tar road to its shoulder. In the context of landscape, when forest, savannah and seasonal grassland areas meet, <phrase role="Beispiel">omungulo</phrase> has a more abstract, not precisely tangible application. This refers, for instance, to the area where savannah and grassland area meet. The borderline between these two landscapes is usually perceived from the vast surface of the plain towards the savannah and not vice versa. The same holds true for the border between the savannah and the forest. In this case, the unmarked point of reference is the <phrase role="Beispiel">omufitu</phrase>, since it is the entrance to the dense forest area (<phrase role="Beispiel">ofuka</phrase>). Only phraseolexical constructions allow the inversion of the perspective by breaking up the underlying concept, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">omungulo wofuka</phrase> ('border of the forest'). If this encoding is not explicitly made, <phrase role="Beispiel">omungulo</phrase> associates with the savannah land.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><25></para><para>Another term for border, more specifically 'borderline' or 'demarcation', is relevant in the ethnical and national contexts:</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="255.0pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">9.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">....peengaba dOukwambi nOukwanyama</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">...at the borders between Kwambi and Kwanyama</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Foregrounding the territorial aspect, <phrase role="Beispiel">eengaba</phrase> (pl.) is not as central in terms of landscape as the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">omungulo</phrase> is in the context of perception and designation of scenic features, since it represents a more abstract quality comparable to the wider system of cardinal directions.</para></section></section><section><title>6. Surface</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><26></para><para>According to Tönjes (1910:16), the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase> denotes 'coarse sand'. According to our field data, the quality of cleanness is a further distinctive feature of <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase>. Sand of the <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase> type can only be found below the surface. Due to the semantic specifity of <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase>, an eventual modified reading when combined with noun class 6 <phrase role="Beispiel">omaheke</phrase> must be excluded. The noun <phrase role="Beispiel">ongweshe</phrase> denoting dirty and dusty sand is conceptually different from <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase>. Nevertheless, both are subcategories of the hyperonym <phrase role="Beispiel">edu </phrase>'ground, soil'.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> In Ndonga <phrase role="Beispiel">edu</phrase> corresponds to the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">evi</phrase>.</para></footnote></phrase> A peculiarity of the noun <phrase role="Beispiel">edu</phrase> is its capacity of being suffixed to <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase> as well as to <phrase role="Beispiel">ongweshe</phrase>:</para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="93.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="186.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">10.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">ehekedu</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para>'clean sandy ground'</para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">ongweshedu</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para>'dirty, dusty and sandy ground'</para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Furthermore, the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">edu</phrase> can be suffixed to the lexical items <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwi</phrase> 'dust' and <phrase role="Beispiel">ombudu</phrase> 'powder': <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwedu</phrase>, <phrase role="Beispiel">ombudwedu</phrase>.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><27></para><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Ondwi</phrase> denotes 'dust from sand'. Given this basic meaning, <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwedu</phrase> serves the specification of the 'dust from soil', excluding the aspect of a sandy dust. Both lexemes, i.e. <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwi</phrase> as well as <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwedu </phrase>are conceptualised as part of <phrase role="Beispiel">edu '</phrase>ground'. More specifically, <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwedu</phrase> has to be understood as representing one possible type of <phrase role="Beispiel">ongweshedu</phrase>. The core meaning of <phrase role="Beispiel">ondwi</phrase> denotes the fine and dry dust. </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="117.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="150.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">11.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">opena ondwi.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'There is dust.'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">opena ombudu.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'There is powder.'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Any form of powder is referred to as <phrase role="Beispiel">ombudu</phrase>. Primarily, this term is used with regard to the process of pounding <phrase role="Beispiel">mahangu </phrase>('millet'). It denotes the fine <phrase role="Beispiel">mahangu</phrase>-powder vanishing with the wind when fanning the pounded, worthy part of <phrase role="Beispiel">mahangu</phrase> called <phrase role="Beispiel">oufila</phrase> from <phrase role="Beispiel">ombudu</phrase>. The criterion of uselessness becomes an obvious characteristic for <phrase role="Beispiel">ombudu</phrase>. In other words, it is considered to be merely a substance for which further specification is not needed.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> <phrase role="Beispiel">Oumbodi</phrase> is the general term for weeds or even herbs which cannot be specified according to their origin. This idea of an unspecified mixture is extended to the designation of different forms of agglomerations, like waste or rubbish.</para></footnote></phrase></para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><28></para><para>Another differentiation with respect to types of sand is given with <phrase role="Beispiel">efululu</phrase>, 'deep and loose sand' that, in contrast to <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke</phrase>, is considered very dirty. The above-mentioned noun <phrase role="Beispiel">edu</phrase> 'ground' can also stand in 2<phrase role="Hochgestellt">nd</phrase> modifier position with <phrase role="Beispiel">efululu</phrase>. The compound <phrase role="Beispiel">efululwedu</phrase> denotes no longer the sandy character of the surface but rather loose ground or soil. Since the encoding in noun class 5 is the unmarked form, the combination with noun class 6 evokes the idea of a multiplicity referring to different spots showing the characteristics of <phrase role="Beispiel">omafululwedu</phrase>. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><29></para><para>In Kwanyama, the lexical item <phrase role="Beispiel">emanya</phrase> 'stone' is neither linguistically nor conceptually as differentiated as the above-mentioned notions of surface quality. No variation in shape or type of stone like 'rubble' or 'gravel' could be found.</para><section><title>6.1. Steps and gradations</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><30></para><para>As stated in 4.2., the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">eendodo</phrase> 'steps' refers to a sequence or series of steps that make a well or a waterhole accessible. The use of the singular form <phrase role="Beispiel">ondodo</phrase> 'step' is rare in Kwanyama. The same holds true for steps, carved into a tree to climb on it. The latter are usually referred to as <phrase role="Beispiel">omalyatelelo</phrase> (sg. <phrase role="Beispiel">elyatelelo</phrase>). Etymologically steps are distinguished as to their function, of descending and ascending. The underlying verb is <phrase role="Beispiel">–lyata</phrase> meaning 'step on'. As in the case of <phrase role="Beispiel">eendodo,</phrase> the plural form <phrase role="Beispiel">omalyatelelo</phrase> is the more frequently used. Therefore, the singular encoding has to be regarded as the marked lexical variety offering a singulative reading.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> The lexical item for 'ladder' in Kwanyama is <phrase role="Beispiel">omhani</phrase>. In Ndonga, the corresponding meaning is represented by the deverbal noun <phrase role="Beispiel">oshilondelo</phrase> derived from –<phrase role="Beispiel">londa</phrase> (+applicative) 'climb', a verb otherwise attested in both languages.</para></footnote></phrase> For example, rivers cutting into the ground may cause natural gradations. These 'steps' never appearing as single phenomenon are expressed phraseolexical by <phrase role="Beispiel">omikungu lukilo domeva</phrase> – verbally: 'steps encrusted of water'. Combined with the plural noun class 6 <phrase role="Beispiel">omakungu lukilo omeva</phrase> indicates a large agglomeration of gradations. Consequently, the transposition results in a frequentative reading. It is essential for the concept of the step formations in nature that these are caused by flowing water. They cannot be thought of as the result of any other liquid.<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> It is noteworthy that any other liquid – except water – is characterised as being oily, e.g. ink, milk etc.</para></footnote></phrase></para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><31></para><para>The phraseolexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">eheke lokoshi yomeva</phrase> – verbally: 'coarse clean sand washed by water' – denotes the moist and clean sides of such step formations. A plural marking has again several readings. In the expression <phrase role="Beispiel">omahekeyokoshi yomeva</phrase>, the constituent <phrase role="Beispiel">omaheke</phrase> specifies the sand that is at the sides of the draining off water (<phrase role="Beispiel">omeva</phrase>). It is also the essential – since constitutive – physical component in this formation. </para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><32></para><para>In Kwanyama, a specific verb is used for denoting the smoothness and wetness of this formation. While the adjectival stem <phrase role="Beispiel">–pu</phrase> refers to the softness of any object even the soil, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">omadu mapu</phrase> 'soft soils'; the stative verb -<phrase role="Beispiel">talama</phrase> ('being wet and soft') shares a lexically exclusive relation with <phrase role="Beispiel">edu</phrase> ('soil') and <phrase role="Beispiel">omeva</phrase> ('water'): </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="430.1pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">12.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Edu ola talama.</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The soil is soaked.'</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">Ondobe opo hapa talama [omeva].</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">'The hollow there is soaking wet [from the water].'</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>The natural causation of this wet soil/sand by soakage seems to be semantically decisive: ”It must be a natural place, where the water was suffering to come to by defeating the sand through its flowing there.” (Shinime p.c.). The agent, <phrase role="Beispiel">omeva </phrase>'water', is covert but tacitly implied in the verb <phrase role="Beispiel">–talama.</phrase></para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><33></para><para>Another lexeme in Kwanyama that expresses a certain kind of step is <phrase role="Beispiel">omutune</phrase>. Semantically it refers to the ridge of a mountain, the top or the vertex. <phrase role="Beispiel">Omutune wefilu</phrase> denotes the ridge enclosing a valley: <phrase role="Beispiel">efilu</phrase>. On the whole, <phrase role="Beispiel">omafilu</phrase> and <phrase role="Beispiel">omitune</phrase> are rarely occurring landmarks in the Owambo area. However, the semantics of the lexeme <phrase role="Beispiel">omutune</phrase> comprises also the meaning 'watershed' as well as the edge where a waterfall begins falling.</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><34></para><para>A stumbling step as it may occur between the sand outside the door and the floor of a house is called <phrase role="Beispiel">opa filuka</phrase>, literally 'there is stumbling, lowering'. This is an expression withdrawing itself from a real phraseolexical definition. The meaning of the verb <phrase role="Beispiel">–filuka</phrase> 'slope', 'dip' alludes to small pits in the soil or sand causing stumbling. General terms for the description of those pits, i.e. terms that can also be applied in different contexts are <phrase role="Beispiel">exulo</phrase> and <phrase role="Beispiel">opa londa</phrase>. While the latter refers to a minimal depth being almost identical with the level of the surrounding ground, <phrase role="Beispiel">exulo</phrase> 'end' denotes the maximum depth of such a stumbling hole.</para></section></section><section><title>7. Place names in the Owambo area</title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><35></para><para>The data presented and discussed in the paragraphs above give an insight into the differentiated conceptual network with regard to landscape terminology in Kwanyama: each and every lexical item discussed and clarified opens new associative links for consideration. Perceptional areas like forest, savannah, water reservoirs or elements of surface appear to be the centre of landscape conceptions, induced by the natural environment of the Owambo region. These conceptual cores are at the same time the source for naming places and settlements. The following domains reflect the predominant conceptual strategies when denoting places<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> See also Möhlig (1989:194).</para></footnote></phrase>: </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="2"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="33.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="198.0pt" colnum="2" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">13.a)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">elements of landscapes in general</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">13.b)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">trees and plants</phrase></para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">13.c)</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">water reservoirs and waterholes</phrase></para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Besides, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">epumbu</phrase> ('shrub tree area'), we frequently find for 13.a) examples from the domain of cultivated landscape, expressing the usefulness of a certain place, like <phrase role="Beispiel">epya</phrase> ('field') or <phrase role="Beispiel">eshosho</phrase> ('manure place').</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><36></para><para>Trees and plants are frequently a source for place names in the Owambo area, e.g. </para><informaltable frame="none"><tgroup cols="3"><colspec colname="col1" colwidth="30.5pt" colnum="1" /><colspec colname="col2" colwidth="75.0pt" colnum="2" /><colspec colname="col3" colwidth="348.0pt" colnum="3" /><tbody><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">14.</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">esati</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">old mopane tree</phrase> (<emphasis>Copaifera mopane</emphasis>)</para></entry></row><row><entry colname="col1" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para /></entry><entry colname="col2" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Beispiel">esheshete</phrase></para></entry><entry colname="col3" valign="top" rowsep="0" colsep="0"><para><phrase role="Text11">red ripe fruits from the </phrase><phrase role="Beispiel">omukekete</phrase><phrase role="Text11"> tree</phrase> (<emphasis>Ziziphus mucronata</emphasis>) <?d-linebreak?><phrase role="Text11">used to produce a liquor</phrase> (<phrase role="Beispiel">ombike</phrase>)</para></entry></row></tbody></tgroup></informaltable><para>Very often, the lexical item <phrase role="Beispiel">oshana</phrase> is part of place naming in connection with 13.a) and/or 13.c). This can be explained by the frequent geomorphological occurrance of <phrase role="Beispiel">oyana</phrase> (pl.) in this area, as mentioned above. Significantly, many times the nominal constituent lacks the pre-prefix <phrase role="Beispiel">o–</phrase>. Therefore, place names like <phrase role="Beispiel">shana kakwa</phrase> (<phrase role="Beispiel">okakwa</phrase> 'small baobab tree' < <phrase role="Beispiel">omukwa</phrase> 'baobab tree' Adansonia digitata) without the Owambo specific initial <phrase role="Beispiel">o–</phrase> are documented. Other examples from category 13.c) are, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">etyapa</phrase> 'muddy water' or <phrase role="Beispiel">lashindobe</phrase> (< <phrase role="Beispiel">ondobe</phrase>, 'depression').</para><para role="Absatznummerierung"><37></para><para>Many places are morphologically combined with the diminutive class (<phrase role="Beispiel">oka–</phrase>). In how far this assignment bears an emotional aspect of the relationship between humans and their location or whether it is a reflection of landmarks perceived as particularly small, remains open for further research<phrase role="Endnote Zchn"><footnote><para role="Endnote"><phrase role="endnote reference" /> In contrast to the neighbouring Kavango region, place names with click articulations were not to found in the Owambo area. Report of the <ulink url="http://www.uni-koeln.de/inter-fak/sfb389/"><phrase role="Hyperlink">SFB 389</phrase></ulink>, project B1 Möhlig (2001).</para></footnote></phrase>. A fourth strategy in the Owambo area for place naming is the reference to animals – wild as well as domesticated ones, e.g. <phrase role="Beispiel">okatana </phrase>('small calf') or <phrase role="Beispiel">etale lyeenguva</phrase> ('lake of the knob-billed duck' <phrase role="Beispiel">Sarkidiornis melanotos</phrase>).</para></section><section><title>8. Summary </title><para role="Absatznummerierung"><38></para><para>Lexemes for the denotation of the environment possess different semantic degrees of inherent precision. As was shown, the system of orientation by means of cardinal directions in Kwanyama is a mixed one. While the 'North–South' opposition goes along with ethnonymic reference this is not the case for the expression of 'East' and 'West'. The latter, although morphologically more complex are the more abstract ones. Therefore, in many cases the inherent precision is not depending on the realisation as a lexeme or phraseme. Particularly phrasemes function as specifiers and modifiers establishing a certain degree of permeability in the process of transferring underlying concepts into neighbouring domains of perception. The noun classes 3, 5 and 9 mainly encode the lexemes on which we focus in this paper. Deviations from this assignment, which frequently occur, are marked forms that induce a semantic expansion and/or narrowing of the context. Only the diminutive marking is an exception to this. In Kwanyama, from a conceptual perspective, the forest area, the savannah and the seasonal grassland are strictly opposed. But within these conceptual domains, fuzzy relations are prominent: the continuum of the environment is reflected in scenic perception and expression. The selected terms of landscape are representative for the nuclear area of environmental concepts among the Kwanyama. Although the naming strategies for place names are the same for the entire area of Owambo, among the Kwanyama it correlates with the central concepts of landscape perception.</para><para><phrase role="Hervorheben">References</phrase></para><para role="Autoren">Fourie, D.J. 1992</para><para role="Quellen">'Cardinal directions in Ndonga, Kwanyama, Herero and Nama.' <ulink url="http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/afrikanistik/publikationen/aap.shtml"><phrase role="Hyperlink">Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere</phrase></ulink> (4.12.2005) 28:141–155.</para><para role="Autoren">Guthrie, M. 1971</para><para role="Quellen"><phrase role="QuellenKursiv Zchn">Comparative Bantu,</phrase> vol. 2 London: Gregg Press.</para><para role="Autoren">Gréciano, G. 1999 </para><para role="Quellen">Sprachfertigteile, ihre kognitive und kommunikative Performanz. (Research Institute for Austrian and International Literature and Cultural Studies), <ulink url="http://www.inst.at/studies/s_0103_d.htm"><phrase role="Hyperlink">http://www.inst.at/studies/s_0103_d.htm</phrase></ulink> (13.04.2005)</para><para role="Autoren">Heine, B. 1997</para><para role="Quellen"><phrase role="QuellenKursiv Zchn">Cognitive Foundations of Grammar.</phrase> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</para><para role="Autoren">Möhlig; W.J.G. 1989 </para><para role="Quellen">'Sprachgeschichte, Kulturgeschichte und Archäologie. Die Kongruenz der Forschungsergebnisse als methodologisches Problem,' <ulink url="http://www.frobenius-institut.de/index2.htm?paideuma.htm">Paideuma </ulink>35:189–196.</para><para role="Autoren">Tönjes, H. 1910 </para><para role="Quellen">Wörterbuch der Ovambo-Sprache Osikuanjama – Deutsch. Berlin: Georg Reimer Verlag.</para><para role="Autoren">Turvey, B.H.C. 1977 </para><para role="Quellen"><phrase role="QuellenKursiv Zchn">Kwanyama – English Dictionary.</phrase> Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.</para><para role="Autoren">Welmers, Wm. E. 1973 </para><para role="Quellen"><phrase role="QuellenKursiv Zchn">African Language Structures.</phrase> Berkeley: University of California Press.</para></section></article>
